Phenomenology and Existentialism
Merleau Ponty (The Phenomenology of Perception)
"The Phenomenology of Perception" by Maurice Merleau-Ponty is a significant work in phenomenology and existential philosophy. The acronym is SPACE
Self As Formed By Perception: Merleau-Ponty's exploration of perception is at the core of "The Phenomenology of Perception." He argues that perception is the primary mode of access to the world and knowledge. For Merleau-Ponty, perception is not just a passive receipt of sensory data; it is an active engagement with the environment. He distinguishes between the 'phenomenal field'—the lived experience of perception—and the 'objective world'—the world described by science. This distinction is crucial in understanding his approach to perception. He critiques the traditional Cartesian view which posits a clear separation between the perceiving subject and the perceived object. Instead, he emphasizes the interrelationship between the perceiver and the perceived. According to Merleau-Ponty, our body is not an object among objects but a means of our perception, and the world is not an assemblage of objects but an interconnected field of experience. This perspective challenges the objective-subjective dichotomy and emphasizes the embodied nature of perception. His discussion of perception also delves into the nature of sensory experiences. He argues that our senses are not isolated channels of information but are interwoven and interact with each other. This inter-sensoriality suggests that our perception of the world is richer and more complex than a mere sum of sensory data.
Perception In Embodiment: The theme of embodiment is another crucial aspect of Merleau-Ponty's philosophy. He posits that our body is not merely a physical entity but a fundamental aspect of our consciousness and being-in-the-world. The body, for Merleau-Ponty, is the primary site of knowing the world. It is through our bodily experience that we engage with the world around us. This concept challenges the traditional mind-body dualism, suggesting instead a form of embodiment that is integral to our experience. Our body is not just a passive object but a living, expressive entity that actively shapes our perception and interaction with the world. Merleau-Ponty introduces the concept of the 'lived body,' which transcends the objective description of the body as a biological organism. The lived body is a dynamic, experiential reality that embodies our intentions, emotions, and consciousness. He also explores the notion of 'body schema' – a pre-reflective, dynamic system of sensory-motor capacities that operates below the level of conscious thought. This schema allows us to perform complex movements without explicit reflective control, indicating the inherent intelligence and intentionality of the body.
Awareness of Reality: Merleau-Ponty’s perspective on reality is deeply intertwined with his views on perception and embodiment. He challenges the conventional understanding of reality as an objective, external entity, independent of human perception and interpretation. Instead, he argues that reality is a lived experience, shaped by our sensory and bodily engagement with the world. This standpoint implies that reality is not a fixed, static entity but a dynamic, evolving field of experiences. It is not something that exists independently but is continually being constituted and reconstituted through our interactions with the world. This view of reality rejects the dichotomy between the internal and the external, the subjective and the objective. Merleau-Ponty emphasizes the importance of context and situation in shaping our experience of reality. He argues that our perception of the world is always situated – influenced by our historical, cultural, and personal context. This situational aspect implies that our understanding of reality is always partial, perspectival, and open to reinterpretation.
Consciousness: Consciousness, in Merleau-Ponty's philosophy, is not a detached, observing entity but is deeply embedded in the world. He moves away from the Cartesian cogito, which posits a clear distinction between the thinking subject and the world, and instead proposes an existential-phenomenological approach to consciousness. For Merleau-Ponty, consciousness is always consciousness of something; it is intentional and directed towards the world. This intentionality is not just a mental state but involves our entire being, including our bodily existence. Consciousness is not a mere internal phenomenon but is manifested in our engagement with the world and others. He also explores the pre-reflective level of consciousness – a level of experience that precedes our reflective, conceptual thinking. This pre-reflective consciousness is fundamental to our sense of being and is manifested in our bodily actions, emotions, and perceptions. Merleau-Ponty’s account of consciousness emphasizes its dynamic, relational, and embodied nature.
Embodied Existence: The theme of existence in Merleau-Ponty's work is deeply connected to his discussions of perception, embodiment, reality, and consciousness. He presents a view of human existence that is fundamentally embodied and situated in the world. Existence, for Merleau-Ponty, is not an abstract, isolated phenomenon but a concrete, lived experience. He emphasizes the existential aspects of human life – the fact that we are thrown into a world that we did not choose, yet we must navigate and make sense of it. This existential condition is characterized by ambiguity, freedom, and responsibility. Our existence is not predetermined but is something that we continually create and negotiate through our choices and actions. Merleau-Ponty’s perspective on existence also includes the notion of intersubjectivity. He argues that our existence is not solitary but is deeply interwoven with the existence of others. Our sense of self and the world is shaped in relation to others, highlighting the social and relational aspects of human existence.
In conclusion, "The Phenomenology of Perception" by Maurice Merleau-Ponty provides profound insights into the nature of perception, embodiment, reality, consciousness, and existence. Through these themes, encapsulated in the acronym PERCE, Merleau-Ponty offers a rich and nuanced understanding of human experience that challenges traditional philosophical dichotomies and opens up new avenues for understanding our relationship with the world and others.
Parable: In a village, there lived five blind men who had never encountered an elephant. When a gentle elephant wandered into their midst, each man reached out to touch and understand this new creature. The first man, feeling the elephant's side, thought of it as a vast wall, shaping his understanding of the world as large, unyielding surfaces. The second, upon grasping the trunk, likened it to a snake, his perception molded by the tactile experience of its flexibility. The third man, touching the sharp, hard tusk, perceived the elephant as spear-like, his awareness of reality defined by this pointed form. The fourth, encountering the large, movable ear, concluded the elephant was like a fan, his consciousness informed by this unique aspect. Lastly, the fifth man, feeling the elephant's leg, compared it to a tree trunk, illustrating how his physical interaction with the world shaped his existential understanding. This parable, reminiscent of Maurice Merleau-Ponty's "The Phenomenology of Perception," underscores how our individual perceptual experiences, though limited and subjective, significantly shape our understanding and interaction with the world.
Quote: "The world is not what I think, but what I live through."
Levinas (Totality and Infinity)
"Totality and Infinity" by Emmanuel Levinas is a significant philosophical work that explores the concepts of ethics, otherness, and the limits of knowing and totality. Here, I present five key insights from this book, each followed by a detailed explanation. The acronym formed from these insights is "OTHER," resonating with Levinas's focus on the 'Other' as central to his philosophy.
Otherness as the Foundation of Ethics: Levinas argues that ethics is not a branch of philosophy but rather philosophy itself. He posits that the encounter with the 'Other' (Autrui) is where ethics originates. This encounter transcends knowledge and understanding, as the Other cannot be fully grasped or reduced to the same. Levinas criticizes the Western philosophical tradition for its emphasis on totality, where the self tries to comprehend and assimilate the Other into its own terms. For Levinas, true ethics begins with recognizing the Other as infinitely transcendent and irreducible, an encounter that calls the self into responsibility and offers no escape.
Totality Versus Infinity: The concepts of totality and infinity are central to Levinas's philosophy. Totality refers to the idea that all that exists can be encompassed within a single, unified system of knowledge or being. In contrast, infinity represents that which is beyond totalization, the endless and unknowable. Levinas argues that Western philosophy has been preoccupied with the idea of totality, seeking to understand and control the world through a comprehensive system. However, Levinas sees infinity, manifested in the face-to-face encounter with the Other, as the true realm of ethics. This encounter opens up a space where the self cannot dominate or fully know the Other, thus acknowledging the Other's infinite alterity.
Hostage to the Other: A striking concept in Levinas's philosophy is the idea of being a 'hostage' to the Other. This doesn't imply a negative or oppressive condition but rather a radical ethical responsibility. In encountering the Other, the self becomes infinitely responsible for them. This responsibility is not chosen or calculated but is an immediate and unavoidable response to the face of the Other. It is a responsibility without reciprocity, where the self is answerable to the Other without expecting anything in return. This idea challenges traditional notions of ethics based on mutual obligations or contracts.
Escape from Being: Levinas views the traditional philosophical preoccupation with 'being' as inadequate for understanding ethics. 'Being' is associated with totality, where everything is categorized and understood within a system. Levinas suggests that true ethics requires an 'escape' from being, an openness to what lies beyond being. This escape is not a literal departure from existence but an acknowledgment of the infinite and transcendent nature of the Other. It is in this transcendence that the self finds true ethical meaning, not confined by the limits of its own being or understanding.
Relation without Relation: Levinas introduces the paradoxical concept of 'relation without relation' to describe the ethical relationship with the Other. This means that while there is a profound connection to the Other, it is not a relation in the traditional sense, where two entities interact and affect each other. Instead, it's a relation where the Other remains entirely other, not absorbed or reduced by the self's understanding or categories. This non-relational relation is where ethics truly resides for Levinas, in the space where the Other is recognized as both infinitely close and infinitely distant.
In summary, "Totality and Infinity" by Emmanuel Levinas presents a profound shift in the understanding of ethics, emphasizing the encounter with the Other as the foundation of ethical responsibility. Levinas critiques the philosophical tradition's focus on totality and being, proposing instead a philosophy grounded in the infinity of the Other. This philosophy leads to a radical rethinking of ethical responsibility, where the self is inextricably bound to the Other in a relation that defies traditional understanding. The acronym "OTHER" encapsulates the essence of Levinas's thought, highlighting the central role of the Other in his ethical philosophy.
“The Parable of the Lighthouse Keeper and the Sailor”: In a small, isolated village, there lived a wise elder known for her profound understanding of life. One day, a curious traveler arrived, seeking the elder's wisdom. Instead of directly answering the traveler's questions, the elder proposed a parable. In this parable, a solitary figure lived in a lighthouse, spending his days gazing out to sea, yearning to understand the vast ocean's secrets. One stormy night, a shipwrecked sailor washed ashore, barely alive. The lighthouse keeper, accustomed to his solitary contemplation, was suddenly confronted with the immediate and pressing need of the stranger. Despite his vast knowledge of the sea, he found himself at a loss; the sailor was an enigma, his presence disrupting the lighthouse keeper's ordered world. As the keeper cared for the sailor, he realized that his understanding of the sea, vast and profound though it was, paled in comparison to the depth of responsibility he felt towards this vulnerable, mysterious other. The elder explained that this parable mirrors the key ideas in Levinas's "Totality and Infinity": the lighthouse keeper, like the self in Levinas's philosophy, is drawn out of his introspective totality by the face-to-face encounter with the other, represented by the sailor. This encounter transcends knowledge and understanding, opening a realm of infinite ethical responsibility that defies totalization and categorization. The elder concluded that true wisdom, like Levinas's ethics, lies not in mastering the world's secrets, but in recognizing and responding to the transcendent mystery and infinite responsibility embodied in the Other.
Quote: "The face opens the primordial discourse whose first word is obligation, which no 'interiority' permits avoiding."
Bakhtin (Dialogic Imagination)
Bakhtin's "Dialogic Imagination" is a profound exploration of language and its relationship with culture, society, and the individual. Mikhail Bakhtin, a Russian philosopher and literary critic, delves into the complexities of dialogism in literature and its broader implications. The following five key insights, each detailed extensively, encapsulate the essence of his work. The acronym formed from these insights is "VOICE," reflecting Bakhtin's emphasis on the multiplicity and diversity of voices in dialogue.
Variety of Speech Genres: Bakhtin introduces the concept of "speech genres," which are distinct types of utterances or modes of speaking that an individual encounters in daily life. These genres range from casual conversation to more formal modes of communication like scientific discourse or literature. Bakhtin argues that our understanding of language and meaning is profoundly shaped by these genres, each with its own set of rules and conventions. He emphasizes that these genres are not static; they evolve over time and are subject to the influences of culture, history, and social context. This dynamism is essential to Bakhtin’s theory of language, as it allows for the continuous interplay and evolution of meaning. In literature, the use of different speech genres enables a diversity of voices and perspectives, enhancing the dialogic nature of a text. Bakhtin’s exploration of speech genres demonstrates how language reflects and shapes our social reality, highlighting the interdependence between language, culture, and society.
Objectivity and Heteroglossia: Central to Bakhtin's philosophy is the concept of "heteroglossia," the presence of multiple voices or languages within a single text. He challenges the notion of a singular, authoritative voice in literature, advocating instead for a multiplicity of perspectives. This plurality of voices represents the diverse social and ideological discourses existing within a society. Bakhtin posits that each character's voice in a narrative embodies a distinct worldview, reflecting various social classes, professions, and ideologies. This diversity creates a dynamic interplay of voices, where no single perspective is wholly dominant. Heteroglossia, according to Bakhtin, is not just a literary device but a fundamental aspect of human existence. Our daily interactions are filled with a multitude of voices, each contributing to the ongoing dialogue that shapes our understanding of the world. By recognizing the inherent objectivity in language and narrative, Bakhtin underscores the importance of acknowledging and engaging with diverse perspectives.
Interaction Between Text and Context: Bakhtin emphasizes the dynamic relationship between a literary work and its context. He argues that a text cannot be understood in isolation but must be interpreted in relation to the social, historical, and cultural contexts in which it was created and is read. This interaction between text and context is crucial for understanding the meanings and implications of a work. Bakhtin proposes that every text is inherently intertextual, meaning it is connected to and influenced by other texts. This intertextuality extends beyond literary works to include various forms of cultural and social discourse. For Bakhtin, the meaning of a text is not fixed but continually renegotiated through its interaction with readers and the ever-changing cultural landscape. This perspective challenges traditional notions of fixed, authorial intent and opens up a more dynamic and participatory understanding of meaning-making in literature.
Carnivalesque and Subversion: Bakhtin introduces the concept of the "carnivalesque," a literary mode that subverts and liberates the assumptions of the dominant culture through humor, chaos, and inversion. He draws on the medieval carnival as a metaphor, where normal social structures and hierarchies are temporarily suspended, allowing for a free and open expression of social critique and alternative worldviews. In literature, the carnivalesque creates a space where official language and ideology can be challenged and where marginalized voices can be heard. Bakhtin sees the carnivalesque as a powerful tool for social and political critique, as it allows for the destabilization of established norms and the exploration of alternative possibilities. The carnivalesque is closely linked to Bakhtin's ideas on dialogism and heteroglossia, as it relies on the interaction and clash of different voices and perspectives to reveal the complexities and contradictions of society.
Epic and Novelistic Discourse: Bakhtin contrasts the epic and novelistic forms of discourse to highlight the evolution of narrative and its role in society. He describes the epic as a genre that looks to the past, presenting a closed, monolithic world that is distant from the present. The epic's language and perspective are authoritative and unchanging, offering a singular view of reality. In contrast, the novelistic form is inherently open, dynamic, and dialogic. It reflects the complexities and contradictions of contemporary life, engaging with the present and anticipating the future. The novel incorporates a diversity of voices and perspectives, allowing for a more nuanced and multifaceted exploration of reality. Bakhtin's analysis of these forms underscores the shift from a monologic to a dialogic understanding of narrative, where the plurality of voices and perspectives becomes central to the creation of meaning.
In summary, Bakhtin's "Dialogic Imagination" presents a rich and nuanced exploration of language, literature, and society. The insights captured in the acronym "VOICE" — Variety of Speech Genres, Objectivity and Heteroglossia, Interaction Between Text and Context, Carnivalesque and Subversion, Epic and Novelistic Discourse — reflect Bakhtin's deep engagement with the dialogic nature of narrative and its implications for understanding the world. His work remains influential in literary theory, linguistics, and cultural studies, offering a powerful framework for analyzing the interplay of language, culture, and power.
“The Parable of the Colorful Tapestry”: In a quaint village, there lived a master weaver named Elena. She was renowned for creating the most extraordinary tapestries, each a dazzling display of colors and patterns. One day, the village elders approached her with a request to weave a tapestry that would represent the essence of their village. They wanted a single, unified image that would capture the spirit of their community. Elena pondered over this task and set out to create the tapestry. However, as she interacted with the villagers during her daily life, she realized that each person had a unique story, perspective, and voice. The farmer spoke of the cycles of nature, the blacksmith described the transformation of raw metal into art, and the children shared tales filled with wonder and imagination. Inspired by these interactions, Elena decided not to weave a tapestry with one unified image. Instead, she created a tapestry of multiple panels, each representing the distinct voice and story of the villagers. The tapestry did not present a singular, cohesive image; rather, it was a vibrant mosaic of colors, textures, and patterns, each panel interacting with the others yet maintaining its distinct identity. When the elders saw the tapestry, they were initially perplexed by the lack of a singular image. However, as they observed each panel, they began to appreciate the diversity and richness of perspectives it represented. The tapestry was not just a portrayal of the village but a dialogic canvas where different voices, experiences, and worldviews coexisted and conversed with each other. Through this tapestry, Elena had woven a visual representation of Bakhtin's "Dialogic Imagination." The tapestry symbolized the multiplicity of voices (heteroglossia) in a community and the importance of acknowledging and representing these diverse perspectives. Just as each panel had its unique story yet contributed to the larger narrative of the tapestry, Bakhtin's concept of dialogism emphasizes the coexistence and interaction of multiple voices within a text, each contributing to the creation of meaning. The Parable of the Colorful Tapestry illustrates that meaning and understanding are not found in a singular, authoritative voice but in the rich tapestry of diverse voices and perspectives. It reflects Bakhtin's idea that true understanding comes from the dialogue between these different voices, each bringing its unique context, history, and worldview to the collective narrative. This parable encapsulates the essence of "Dialogic Imagination," highlighting the dynamic, interactive, and evolving nature of language, culture, and society.
Quote: "The word in language is half someone else's. It becomes ‘one’s own’ only when the speaker populates it with his own intention, his own accent, when he appropriates the word, adapting it to his own context in a new, creative way."
Kierkegaard (The Present Age, the three spheres of existence, the concept of anxiety)
Feminism and Gender Studies
Young (Throwing Like a Girl)
Iris Marion Young and her notable essay "Throwing Like a Girl: A Phenomenology of Feminine Body Comportment, Motility, and Spatiality." This essay is a significant contribution to feminist philosophy and phenomenology. In it, Young explores the lived experience of being a woman in a society structured by male norms and expectations. She uses the example of "throwing like a girl" to illustrate how women's movement and bodily engagement with the world are often restricted and shaped by societal attitudes and expectations. Here are five key insights from this work, each insight contributing to an acronym: GRACE.
Gendered Expectations and Bodily Experience (600 words): Young argues that the way women move and engage with their bodies is not due to any physiological differences but rather due to socialization. She notes that from a young age, girls are taught, both explicitly and implicitly, to occupy less space, move more cautiously, and engage in activities deemed 'appropriate' for their gender. This socialization leads to a distinct 'feminine' way of moving and being in the world, which Young describes as "throwing like a girl." She uses this phrase to symbolize the broader restrictions placed on women's physical and spatial freedom.The essay explores how these gendered expectations impact women's sense of agency and confidence. Young explains that the internalization of these norms can lead to a lack of trust in one's body and capabilities. She contrasts this with the way men are socialized to move freely, take up space, and express physical confidence. This contrast is not to suggest that all men inherently move a certain way but rather to highlight how societal norms influence gendered behaviors. Young's analysis here is groundbreaking in highlighting the connection between bodily experience and gendered social norms, arguing that the body is not merely a biological entity but a medium through which societal constructs are expressed and reinforced.
Restricted Autonomy and Spatiality (600 words): Young delves into the concept of spatiality – how individuals perceive and interact with the space around them. She argues that due to societal norms, women often experience a restricted sense of spatiality. This restriction is not just physical but also psychological, affecting how women perceive their ability to interact with and navigate the world. Young notes that this can lead to a more tentative and uncertain way of moving through space. She discusses how this restricted spatiality impacts women's autonomy and freedom. For example, women might be less likely to engage in certain physical activities or travel independently due to these ingrained spatial limitations. Young also explores the implications of this restricted spatiality in terms of safety and vulnerability. The societal expectation for women to be cautious and aware of their surroundings at all times is both a reflection and reinforcement of these limitations. This insight is crucial in understanding how gendered norms not only affect physical movements but also shape women's experiences and interactions with the world, ultimately influencing their sense of self and autonomy.
Ambivalence Towards the Body (600 words): Young discusses the concept of ambivalence towards the body, especially prevalent among women. This ambivalence stems from the conflicting messages women receive about their bodies from society. On one hand, women's bodies are often objectified and scrutinized, leading to a heightened self-consciousness and a sense of being constantly observed. On the other hand, women are also taught to downplay their physicality and to be modest in their bodily expressions. Young argues that this ambivalence can result in a disjointed relationship with one's body, where women may feel disconnected or in conflict with their physical selves. This disconnection can manifest in various ways, such as discomfort with physical activities, a lack of trust in one's bodily capabilities, and even health implications due to neglect or mistreatment of the body. Young's exploration of this topic is significant in highlighting how societal attitudes towards women's bodies can lead to a complex, often troubled relationship with one's own physical self, impacting overall well-being and self-perception.
Cultural Construction of Femininity (600 words): In her essay, Young emphasizes that femininity and the associated behaviors are not innate but are culturally constructed. She challenges the notion that certain traits or behaviors are inherently 'feminine.' Young argues that what is considered feminine is largely determined by societal norms and expectations, which are subject to change and vary across cultures and time periods. She discusses how these cultural constructions of femininity often prioritize passivity, delicacy, and a focus on appearance, leading to a narrow and limiting understanding of what it means to be a woman. Young critiques these constructions for not only limiting women's expressions and experiences but also for creating unrealistic and often contradictory standards that women are expected to adhere to. This insight is crucial in understanding the role of culture in shaping gender norms and the importance of challenging and redefining these norms to allow for a more inclusive and diverse understanding of femininity.
Embodiment and Resistance (600 words): Finally, Young discusses the potential for resistance and change. She argues that recognizing and challenging the ways in which our bodies have been shaped by societal norms is a crucial step towards greater autonomy and freedom. She encourages women to become more aware of their bodily experiences and to question the limitations placed on them. By doing so, women can start to reclaim their bodies and redefine their relationship with physicality and space.Young suggests that this process of embodiment – becoming fully present and engaged with one's body – is a form of resistance against restrictive societal norms. She also discusses the role of collective action and solidarity among women in challenging these norms. By sharing experiences and supporting each other, women can work together to redefine what it means to move and exist in the world as a woman. This insight is empowering, offering a pathway towards greater agency and freedom. Young's call to action is not just for individual change but for a collective reimagining of how gender and bodies are understood and experienced in society.
The acronym GRACE (Gendered Expectations, Restricted Autonomy, Ambivalence, Cultural Construction, Embodiment) encapsulates the key themes of Young's essay. It reflects the grace with which women navigate the complexities of societal norms and the potential for graceful resistance and redefinition of these norms. Young's "Throwing Like a Girl" remains a pivotal work in feminist philosophy, offering profound insights into the lived experience of being a woman and the pathways towards greater autonomy and liberation.
“The Parable of the Glass Garden”: In a distant land, there was a kingdom known for its magnificent library, which housed a legendary book titled "The Mirror of Realities." This book was said to have the unique ability to reflect the true nature of its reader, offering profound insights and wisdom. One day, a young woman named Elara visited the library. She was curious, intelligent, and, most importantly, felt confined by the expectations of her society. Elara had heard about the mystical book and was eager to uncover its secrets. When she opened "The Mirror of Realities," she found herself in a parable. Once, there was a beautiful garden enclosed in glass walls. Inside, the garden was divided into two sections. One half was open, filled with vast fields, tall trees, and a clear, open sky. This was where the Sons of the Sky lived, moving freely, running, jumping, and reaching for the heights. The other half, however, was a confined space, filled with delicate flowers and narrow paths. Here, the Daughters of the Earth dwelled, taught to tread lightly, avoid the thorns, and maintain the garden's delicate beauty. Elara saw herself as one of the Daughters of the Earth, moving cautiously, always mindful of the boundaries set by the glass walls and the narrow paths. She noticed how the Sons of the Sky seemed to move without hesitation, embracing the expanse of their open fields. One day, a Daughter named Lira questioned why the Daughters were confined to the narrow paths. She began to explore the garden, moving beyond the delicate flowers and reaching the glass wall. There, she saw her reflection and realized the glass wall was not just a barrier but a mirror, reflecting back the limitations they had internalized. Lira started to move differently, stepping off the path, exploring the garden's full breadth. Her movements became more confident, less constrained by the invisible rules she had learned. Seeing Lira, other Daughters began to follow, discovering new ways to move and interact with their environment. As the Daughters changed their movements, the garden itself began to transform. The glass walls that divided the garden started to dissolve, revealing that the two halves were, in fact, one. The Daughters and Sons began to share the garden, learning from each other, moving freely and without the constraints of the invisible barriers that once separated them. Elara, witnessing this transformation, understood the parable's message: The limitations she faced in her life were like the glass walls of the garden, shaped by societal expectations and internalized beliefs. The key to freedom and self-realization lay in recognizing these invisible barriers and having the courage to move beyond them, just like Lira. Closing the book, Elara felt a profound sense of clarity and empowerment. She realized that her movements, both literal and metaphorical, were often confined by unseen norms and expectations. But like the Daughters of the Earth in the parable, she too could learn to move beyond these confines, to explore and express herself freely. "The Mirror of Realities" had shown Elara that true liberation comes from understanding and challenging the constraints imposed by society, and by embracing a journey of self-discovery and change. This realization marked the beginning of a new chapter in her life, one where she would move, think, and exist freely, unbound by the glass walls of societal norms.
Quote: "Insofar as a woman lives her body as a burden which must limit her possibility, her movement and general motility will develop a restricted quality."
Nin (A Spy In the House of Love)
Constituting Feminist Subjects (Kathi Weeks)
The Promise of Happiness (Ahmed)
Caliban and the Witch (Silvia Federici)
The Body Is Not an Apology (Sonya Renee Taylor)
Queer Phenomenology (Sarah Ahmed)
The Will to Change (bell hooks)
We Are Not Born Submissive
Angela Willy (Undoing Monogamy)
Adult Life (Russon)
The Ethics of Hooking Up (Rocha)
Linda Martin Alcoff
Anne Cahill
Heidi Heard
Talia May Becher
Judith Butler (theory of performativity)
Black Feminist Thought (Patricia Hill Collins)
Feminist Politics and Human Nature
The Sexual Contract (Pateman)
Love & Trouble (Claire Dederer)
The Summons of Love (Ruti)
The Radicalism of Romantic Love (Grossi & West)
Psychoanalysis and Psychology
Lacan (The Ethics of Psychoanalysis)
Jung (Psychological types)
Aldous Huxley (The Doors of Perception)
Alison Gopnik (Philosophical Baby)
Derrida on Husserl's Phenomenology of Intersubjectivity
Come As You Are (Nagoski)
I Am Not a Brain (Gabriel)
The Erotic Phenomenon (Jean-Luc Marion)
Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (Suzuki)
Social and Political Philosophy
Camus (on freedom)
Martha Nussbaum (Animal Justice)
Habermas (on philosophy's roles in contemporary society)
Hegel (master-servant dialectic)
Hannah Arendt (on political life)
Dewey vs Adorno (on art and society)
Donna Haraway (a cyborg manifesto)
Marshall McLuhan (the medium is the message)
C Thi Nguyen (escape the echo chamber)
Carol Hay (think like a feminist)
Distinction (Pierre Bourdieu)
The Making and Breaking of Affectional Bonds (John Bowlby)
The Communism of Love
The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State
Revolution of the Heart (Wendy Williams)
Frantz Fanon
Transformation of Intimacy (Giddens)
Location of Culture (Homi Bhabha)
One Dimensional Man (Marcuse)
Marriage and Morals (Russell)
Philosophy of Art and Aesthetics
Dewey (on Art and Experience)
Alain Locke (distinction between art and propaganda)
Walter Benjamin (on Art in the Age of its Technological Reproducibility)
Kant (on the beautiful and taste: Critique of Judgment)
Okakuro Kakuzo ("art appreciation" from the book of tea)
Marcia Muelder Eaton ("a sustainable definition of art")
Audre Lorde ("the transformation of silence")
Susan Sontag (in Plato's cave)
Performance Theory (Richard Schnechter)
The Poetics of Space (Gaston Bachelard)
Epistemology and Metaphysics
Ortega (In Between)
The Philosophy of Erotic Love (Solomon & Higgins)
Self (Richard Sorabji)
Free Will (Campbell)
Visions of Infinity (Ian Stewart)
The Logic of Sense
Levi Strauss
Susanne Langer
Shanti Chu
Joseph Fishel
Katherine Angel
Linda Martin Alcoff
Jonathan Jenkins Ichikawa
Aristotle (on Tragedy)
Hume (on the Standard of Taste)
Plato (on Phaedo, apology)
Ricoeur (on personal identity)
Derrida (and Montaigne on mourning the friend)
Deleuze (societies of control)
Bergson (theory of perceptual adaptation)
Edith Stein (on empathy)
Sartre's (theory of the look)
Foucault (on genealogy and identity)
Horkheimer and Adorno (on Enlightenment)
Heidegger (on anxiety and dasein)
Rebeccca Solnit's (a field guide to getting lost)
Michel Serres (The Five Senses)
Critical Theory and Philosophy of Culture
The Stars Down to Earth (Adorno)
Specters of Marx (Derrida)
Purity and Danger (Mary Douglas)
Bubbles (Peter Sloterdijk)
Jargon of Authenticity (Adorno)
Aesthetics & Politics (Adorno)
The Philosophy of Money (Simmel)
Philosophy of Self and Identity
Irving Goffman - The Presentation of Self In Everyday Life
Friend (A.C. Grayling)
The Lover (Marguerite Dumas)
On Love (Ferry)
Ethics and Moral Philosophy
The Sovereignty of Good (Iris Murdoch)
A Guide To the Good Life (Irvine)
Peter Winch
Mindfulness and Consciousness
Ronald Purger (Mindfulness)
Anil Seth
Robin Carhart Harris
Michael Pollan (How To Change Your Mind)
Mario Blaser (Storytelling Globalization)
Byung-Chul Han (The Burnout Society)
Miscellaneous/Interdisciplinary
Cancian (Love In America)
French Women Don't Get Fat (Mireille Guiliano)
Middlemarch
Will Stohr (Selfie)
Lakou consciousness
Edward Said's (representations of the intellectual)
Kierkegaard's (The Present Age)
Jaeggi (Alienation)
Hegemonic Masculinity
Sugrue / Stahloff additions
Jörn Rüsen: Primarily late 20th and early 21st century
William McNeill: 1917 – 2016 (20th and early 21st century)
Arthur Danto: 1924 – 2013 (20th and early 21st century)
Hayden White: 1928 – 2018 (20th and early 21st century)
Mircea Eliade: 1907 – 1986 (20th century)
R. M. Hare: 1919 – 2002 (20th century)
Thomas Kuhn (Kuhns Paradigm): 1922 – 1996, influential work in 1962
Alvin Gouldner: 1920 – 1980 (20th century)
William Graham Sumner: 1840 – 1910 (late 19th and early 20th century)
Edmund Husserl: 1859 – 1938 (late 19th and early 20th century)
Willard Van Orman Quine (Quine's Ontological Relativism): 1908 – 2000 (20th century)
Arnold Toynbee: 1889 – 1975 (20th century)
R.G. Collingwood: 1889 – 1943 (20th century)
Fernand Braudel: 1902 – 1985 (20th century)
Henry Sidgwick (Utilitarianism): 1838 – 1900 (late 19th century)
George Berkeley: 1685 – 1753 (18th century)
Adam Smith (Smith's Wealth of Nations): 1723 – 1790 (18th century)
Edmund Burke (Burke and the Birth of Enlightened Conservatism): 1729 – 1797 (18th century)
Auguste Comte (Comte and the Origins of Sociology): 1798 – 1857 (19th century)
Thomas More: 1478 – 1535 (16th century)
Lucian: Circa 125 – after 180 CE
Polybius: Around 200 – 118 BCE
Gorgias: Around 485 – 380 BCE